1) What is Science and Technology Studies (STS)?

2) History of STS:

a. pre-20th century views: science and tech allows appreciation of God's Glory, violation of God's law, increased profits,
    revolt against church and state, etc. Positivism: science = Truth.

b. post WWI: George Sarton and founding of ISIS

c. Merton: science has normative structure (universalism, communism, disinterestedness, organized scepticism)
                science has reward system (eponomy, honorific prizes, historical priority). Other founders of Social Studies of
                Knowledge (SSK): Fleck, Hessen, Mannheim.

d. Popper: Criterion for scientific status is falsifiability.

e. Kuhn: Science consists of short revolutions between paradigms, followed by "normal science" within a paradigm.
              There is no research without puzzles, but puzzles can be reinterpreted as need for new paradigm.

f. 1960s: Impact policy studies, biased science critique, biased technology critique: eg Mumford, Carlson, Commoner, etc.

g. 1970-80s: Critique of science-as-usual: Science itself as authoritarian power (e.g. Merchant, Keller). Relativist critique of science (Feyerabend, Collins), Constructivist (Knorr-Cetina, Latour, Bloor). SCOT, ANT.

h. 1980-Current:

• Cultural studies approach; eg Sandra Harding's "strong objectivity" (using "standpoint epistemology") Haraway's postmodernist approach.
• Re-emergence of interest in alternative practice, action research, democratizing science and technology, collaboration with scientists (e.g. upstreaming).